Executive Summary
In exploring Noel Reynolds' hypothesis that some material in the Book of Moses may have been present on the brass plates that Nephi used, I wondered if Nephi or other authors might have referred to "chains of darkness" in Moses 7:57. Though that phrase is not used in the Book of Mormon, I found 2 Nephi 1:23, quoting Lehi, combines "chains" and "obscurity," where "obscurity" can have the meaning of darkness. Further, there may be a Hebraic wordplay behind Lehi's words when he tells his wayward sons to "come forth out of obscurity and arise from the dust," based on the similarity between
ʼôphel (obscurity) and
ʼâphar (dust). Further exploring this connection pointed to the significance of the theme of dust in Lehi's words and the surrounding passages from Nephi and Jacob, building on analysis from David Bokovoy and an important paper of non-LDS scholar Walter Brueggemann on the rich symbolic and covenant-related meanings of "rising from the dust" and "returning to the dust" in the Bible.
Brueggemann informs us that rising from the dust invokes themes of creation and receiving life, of covenant making and keeping, of receiving power and authority from the Lord, of enthronement and kingship, of receiving glory and of being resurrected. Returning to the dust, on the other hand, can be a symbol of death, of breaking covenants, and of loss of status and authority. Brueggemann's work adds new layers of meaning to Lehi's words and the surrounding text, especially Nephi and Jacob's usage of Isaiah. Lehi's dust-intensive speech, drawing upon the "Arise from the dust" theme in Isaiah 52:1-2, is actually sandwiched between two repeated quotations of the same dust-related passage of Isaiah--a puzzling redundancy were it not for the poetic emphasis it adds.
Recognizing the usage of dust-related themes in the Book of Mormon can enhance our understanding of several passages. An appeal to the Book of Mormon's use of dust-related themes may even help fill in some gaps in the complex chiastic structure of Alma 36 and add meaning to other portions of that voice from the dust, the Book of Mormon.
Background: Digging into Dust
In
recent posts
I've discussed a hypothesis from Noel Reynolds about the relationship
between the Book of Moses and the brass plates of Nephi. Along with the
theme of the devil, one concept in the Book of Moses
not mentioned by Reynolds that I also see in the Book of Mormon is the
symbol of the chain. In Moses 7:26 and 7:56, Enoch sees Satan with a
great chain, and we see that people are held captive in "chains of
darkness" until the judgment day. When I read that after reading
Reynolds, I wondered if there might a relationship in the Book of
Mormon. Chains and the captivity of Satan are themes there, but I was
disappointed to not find "darkness" and "chains" used together in the
text.
Finding that connection might be helpful in
exploring influences on Nephite writers but would not be significant in
terms of LDS apologetics since the Bible also mentions chains and its
obvious link to captivity. Rev. 20:1 mentions a great chain associated
with the bottomless pit, and "chains of darkness" are mentioned in 2
Peter 2:4 and Jude 6, though possibly connected back to the Book of
Enoch mentioned in Jude 14.
First Enoch, published in 1912 from a text in the Ga'ez language, often called "Ethiopic," mentions great iron chains
and has often been asserted to have connections to the passages from
Peter and Jude (
The Book of Enoch or First Enoch,
transl. by R.H. Charles (Escondido, CA: The Book Tree, 2000), pp.
105-108, 141). Both Peter and Jude write of angels who sinned and are
held in chains of darkness until the judgment day, aligning well with
the discussion of Satan's rebellion in heaven in the Book of Moses and
also with Moses 7:57, where Enoch sees spirits in prison in "chains of
darkness until the judgment of the great day." But in the KJV Old
Testament, the connection between chains and darkness doesn't seem to be
there, so if Nephi or others used a similar term, perhaps it was known
from the brass plates. However, Psalm 107:10 could also be relevant. In
the KJV, considering the context of verses 9-11, this speaks of
rebellious souls who "sit in darkness and in the shadow of death, being
bound in affliction and iron." But several other translations use
"chains," such as the NIV for Ps. 107:
10. Some sat in darkness, in utter darkness,
prisoners suffering in iron chains,
11. because they rebelled against God’s commands
and despised the plans of the Most High.
While I didn't find "chains of darkness" or similar phrases in my first search of the Book of
Mormon, I soon noticed 2 Nephi 1, Lehi's speech to his sons, where verse
23 may be relevant:
- And now that my
soul might have joy in you, and that my heart might leave this world
with gladness because of you, that I might not be brought down with
grief and sorrow to the grave, arise from the dust, my sons, and be men,
and be determined in one mind and in one heart, united in all things,
that ye may not come down into captivity;
- That
ye may not be cursed with a sore cursing; and also, that ye may not
incur the displeasure of a just God upon you, unto the destruction, yea,
the eternal destruction of both soul and body.
- Awake, my sons; put on the armor of righteousness. Shake off the chains with which ye are bound, and come forth out of obscurity, and arise from the dust.
- Rebel
no more against your brother, whose views have been glorious, and who
hath kept the commandments from the time that we left Jerusalem; and who
hath been an instrument in the hands of God, in bringing us forth into
the land of promise; for were it not for him, we must have perished with
hunger in the wilderness; nevertheless, ye sought to take away his
life; yea, and he hath suffered much sorrow because of you.
In verse 23, a connection between chains and darkness is provided, though
not verbatim. In the entry for obscurity in the 1828 dictionary of Noah
Webster, the first
definition listed for obscurity is "Darkness; want of
light."
Ah, another link in the chain.
In
that verse, chains are contrasted with the armor of righteousness.
Obscurity and dust are linked, and possibly contrasted with Nephi,
"whose views have been glorious"--vision and glory (light) are in
contrast with obscurity (darkness) and dust. The Hebrew word for dust, (
H6083 in Strong's Concordance) is
`aphar, which comes from
H6080, the primitive root
ʻâphar, "meaning either to be gray or perhaps rather to pulverize". The gray aspect of this word would seem to go well with obscurity.
Obscurity
and dust are both mentioned in Isaiah 29, a part of Isaiah that Nephi
quotes heavily, so it is reasonable to assume that similar Hebrew words
were used in Nephi's statement. In Isaiah 29:4, the speech that whispers
from the "dust" (actually occurring twice there) is from Strong's
H6083,
`aphar, mentioned above. This word occurs 15 times in
Isaiah, always translated as dust except in Is. 2:19, where it is
"earth." Most occurrences of dust in Isaiah and elsewhere in the Old
Testament are from the same root (accounting for 15 of the 17 cases in
Isaiah), though "dust" in Is. 5:24 and 29:5 is taken from a less common
root, '
abaq, referring to an especially fine powder. It occurs 6
times and accounts for less than 5% of the occurrences of "dust" in the
Old Testament (KJV). (Analysis done using the Blue Letter Bible app from BlueLetterBible.org.)
The KJV word "obscurity" in Isaiah 28 is tied to
Strong's H652:
ʼôphel, o'fel (from H651,
ʼâphêl); meaning "dusk:—darkness, obscurity, privily,: while ʼâphêl is
"from an unused root meaning to set as the sun; dusky:—very dark."
So "obscurity" could be
ôphel/ʼâphêl, while "dust" is probably from
ʻâphar.
To me, that looks like a potential wordplay that I don't think has been
noted. This seems to add to the parallelism and poetry of Lehi's words,
in a passage that appears to draw from Isaiah 52 and, perhaps, a touch
of the Book of Moses or related content on the brass plates.
Later
I would find chains linked to darkness in other verses. Alma 5:7 speaks
of souls who were in a "deep sleep" and the "midst of darkness," in
describing those who were "encircled about by the bands of death, and
the chains of hell," facing destruction. But they were liberated as the
chains of hell were loosed, causing their souls to expand and thus they
did "sing redeeming love." In adjacent verses at Alma 26:14-15, we also
have both: chains and darkness
- Behold,
how many thousands of our brethren has he loosed from the pains of hell;
and they are brought to sing redeeming love, and this because of the
power of his word which is in us, therefore have we not great reason to
rejoice?
- Yea, we have reason to praise him forever, for he is the Most High God, and has loosed our brethren from the chains of hell.
- Yea, they were encircled about with everlasting darkness
and destruction; but behold, he has brought them into his everlasting
light, yea, into everlasting salvation; and they are encircled about
with the matchless bounty of his love; yea, and we have been instruments
in his hands of doing this great and marvelous work.
Chains
in the Book of Mormon are frequently associated with Satan or hell,
captivity, destruction, and encirclement. Chains are also often
associated with shaking and trembling, as in 2 Nephi 1:13 ("shake off
the awful chains", spoken by Lehi the "trembling parent" in vs. 14); 2
Nephi 1:23 ("shake off the chains"); 2 Nephi 9:44-45 ("shake of the
chains" in parallel to shaking of garments and shaking off iniquities in
v. 44), 2 Nephi 28:19 (the great and abominable church "must tumble to
the earth" in vs. 18, and then in vs. 19 "the kingdom of the devil must
shake . . . the devil will grasp them with his everlasting chains").
In
the Book of Mormon, those who once were encircled with the chains of hell but
are freed may be described as "encircled" with God's love, per Alma
26:15 above, or encircled with the robes or righteousness, as Nephi
writes in his psalm (2 Nephi 4:33, after asking that he may "shake" at
the appearance of sin in vs. 31). They are to be lifted up (the "arise" motif ) at the last day, and also tend to break out into song. In
addition to Alma 26:13-15 above, also see Alma 12:5-6,11,17; Alma
5:6-11; Alma 13:29-30; and the last place where chains are mentioned in
the Book of Mormon, Alma 36:18:
Now, as my mind caught
hold upon this thought, I cried within my heart: O Jesus, thou Son of
God, have mercy on me, who am in the gall of bitterness, and am
encircled about by the everlasting chains of death.
Interestingly,
"encircled about by the chains of death" is how Alma sums up his
miserable state as he turns to the Lord. This is at the heart, the pivot
point, of the Book of Mormon's most famous chiasmus. Could it be
related to Lehi's words and the themes associated with dust? Could there
be more to Alma 36 than previously recognized?
I think
so. To explain, though, I need to share some further information that I
feel will be relevant. I apologize for the dusty detour that follows.
Key Insights on Dust from Bokovoy and Brueggemann
After
finding the theme of darkness and chains apparently embedded in 2 Nephi
1:23, and finding what looks like a possible wordplay, I searched for
further commentary to see what others had found. This took me to
David Bokovoy's blog at Patheos.com,
where his 2014 discussion of Lehi's poetic speech to his sons shows how
Lehi draw upon the theme of "rising from the dust" in Isaiah 52:1-2.
The excerpt below
from Bokovoy follows Grant Hardy's formatting for the
poetic portions of the Book of Mormon (Grant Hardy,
The Book of Mormon: A Reader’s Edition
(Chicago: Illinois Press, 2005), pp. 62-63):
At the end of his life, the Book of Mormon prophet Lehi called his
children together and delivered a series of final sermons. Facing the
prospect of his own mortality, Lehi encouraged his sons to wake up and
avoid spiritual death. While facing physical death, Lehi used resurrection imagery in his final effort to inspire his sons:
O that ye would awake;
awake from a deep sleep,
yea, even from the sleep of hell,
and shake off the awful chains by which ye are bound,
which are the chains which bind the children of men,
that they are carried away captive down to the eternal gulf of misery
and woe.
Awake! and arise from the dust,
and hear the words of a trembling parent,
whose limbs ye must soon lay down in the cold and silent grave,
from whence no traveler can return;
a few more days and I go the way of all the earth…
Awake, my sons; put on the armor of righteousness.
Shake off the chains with which ye are bound,
and come forth out of obscurity,
and arise from the dust (2 Nephi 1:13-14, 23).
Lehi’s
poem clearly draws its inspiration from Isaiah 52, a poetic text that
seeks to reverse the sufferings experienced by the exilic community
through a promise of royal restoration:
Awake, awake;
put on thy strength, O Zion;
Put on thy beautiful garments,
O Jerusalem, the holy city:
for henceforth
there shall no more come into thee
the uncircumcised and the unclean.
Shake thyself from the dust; arise, and sit down,
O Jerusalem:
loose thyself from the bands of thy neck,
O captive daughter of Zion (Isaiah 52:1-2)
Lehi’s
sermon features the dual imperative “awake, awake,” the image of being
loosed from bands, arising from the dust, and putting on armor of
righteousness/beautiful garments. The Book of Mormon sermon, therefore,
clearly echoes this poetic refrain from Isaiah 52.
Many people are puzzled by a phrase in Isaiah 52:2: "Shake thyself from the dust; arise, and
sit down."
If you are shaking yourself from the dust, why would you sit down in it
after rising? But the meaning is not to sit back down in the dust, but
to arise and
sit on the throne that God has prepared. This will
become more clear below as we explore how the theme of dust in the
ancient Near East and in the Book of Mormon relates to enthronement and
related themes. But first, let's see how Lehi's speech ties to
subsequent writings of Nephi and Jacob.
According to
Bokovoy, Nephi shows that he accepts Lehi's charge to "awake" shortly
after recording Lehi's speech when he records his own psalm:
Awake, my soul! No longer droop in sin.
Rejoice, O my heart,
and give place no more for the enemy of my soul (2 Nephi 4:28).
Nephi's words strengthen the case for Nephi as Lehi's successor and the legitimate
king over the Nephite people.
I should add that Nephi also fortifies his acceptance of Lehi's plea when he asks God in verse 31 to make him that he "may
shake
at the appearance of sin," following Lehi's command to "shake off the
chains with which ye are bound" and Isaiah 52:1 with "Shake thyself from
the dust." Dust, chains, shaking, are connected to enthronement, life,
resurrection, and glory. Nephi's acceptance of Lehi's commands and his
worthiness as authorized leader of the Nephite people should come as no
surprise, of course, since Lehi already endorsed Nephi in his speech in 2
Nephi 1 and observed that, in contrast to the chains and obscurity
hindering his wayward sons, Nephi's "views have been glorious." Sight
and glory stand in contrast to the chains, dust and darkness encircling
the wicked.
Two chapters later, Jacob explains that he
is about to read words from Isaiah that Nephi asked him to discuss (2
Nephi 6:4). He then begins reciting and discussing Isaiah, starting with
Isaiah 49:22 and then Isaiah 50, 51, and finally concludes with the
same passage that Lehi drew upon, Isaiah 52:1-2 ("Awake, awake, … shake
thyself from the dust….").
Bokovoy sees
Jacob's use of this passage, following Nephi's assignment to him, as
further cementing the legitimacy of Nephi's reign and establishing the
authority of Nephi and Jacob.
Bokovoy
sees the issue of Nephite leadership and authority and the use of Isaiah
52:1-2 as especially meaningful in light of a scholarly work that
establishes a connection between "rising from the dust" and kingship,
enthronement, and authority. The source is Walter Brueggemann's 1972
publication, "
From Dust to Kingship,"
Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft,
vol. 84, no. 1, 1972; (the link provides only the first page and a
means to purchase). I feel that Brueggemann's work offers some gems of
insight for the Book of Mormon, the record we often call "a voice from
the dust."
Brueggemann's study of this topic began with an investigation of 1 Kings 16:2, where
the Lord tells Baasha that “I exalted you out of the dust and made you
leader over my people Israel.” But then the antithesis is given: “Behold
I will utterly sweep away Baasha and his house,” referring to Baasha
losing his status as a ruler and becoming dust again. This is tied to
the Creation story, where we read that God formed man out of the dust of
the ground (Gen. 2:7), and that we are dust, and will return to dust
(Gen. 3:19). (After being formed from the dust, Adam and Eve are put in
charge of caring for the garden--in other words, they are given
authority and responsibility.)
I should add that in
light of modern science, we can say that we are not only formed from the
dust of the earth, but from the dust of the stars and the cosmos, and
that the whole earth has been formed from the dust of space. Dust is
such a fitting word to describe the origins of our physical bodies and
even the world around us. The Creative work of God in bringing about His
ultimate goals begins with forming us from the dust.
Brueggemann builds on the 1967 work of J. Wijngaards, "
Death and Resurrection in Covenantal Context (Hos. VI 2),"
Vetus Testamentum, vol. 17, Fasc. 2 (Apr., 1967), pp. 226-239. Wijngaards observed that “dying and rising” describe the voiding and
renewing of covenant relationships, and that calls to “turn” or “repent”
involve changing loyalties or entering into a new covenant. He also
cites other scholars who found that New Testament themes of resurrection
are built on Israel’s ancient enthronement rituals, and that when
Christ was “raised up” from the dead "on the third day," the concept was
dependent upon a variety of related Old Testament passages. “The
important gain of these studies is the recognition that the motifs of
covenant-renewal, enthronement, and resurrection cannot be kept in
isolation from each other but they run together and serve to illuminate
each other" (p. 1).
Brueggemann's
exploration of the dust theme in the scriptures led him to conclude
that rising from the dust is tied to divine covenants. To keep sacred covenants is
to rise from the dust--not only to rise, but to also be endowed (my term)
with power and authority. Rising from the dust is a symbol of
enthronement, which I believe is God's ultimate goal--His work
and His glory--in creating us from the dust in the first place.
Brueggemann explains that to break covenants is to return to the dust
and to lose
one's position of authority. Dust is used to describe the status of the
covenant maker:
Behind the creation formula lies a
royal formula of enthronement. To be taken “from the dust” means to be
elevated from obscurity to royal office and to return to dust means to
be deprived of that office and returned to obscurity. Since the royal
office depends upon covenant with the appropriate god, to be taken from
the dust means to be accepted as a covenant-partner and treated
graciously; to return to the dust means to lose that covenant relation.
…To die and be raised is to be out of covenant and then back in
covenant. So also to be “from dust” is to enter into a covenant and to
return “to dust” is to have the covenant voided. Dust is not to be taken
literally but as a figure for being out of covenant, impotent and
unimportant, or as Wijngaards has suggested, “dead”. The dramatic
movement of dust to life to dust [Gen. 2:7, 3:9, 1 Kings 16:2-3] is in
fact imagery describing the fortune and standing of the royal occupant. (pp. 2-3; emphasis mine)
Since
my explorations on this topic began with 2 Nephi 1:23, where "dust" and
"obscurity" are linked and seem like an poor fit in the midst of easily
recognized parallels, it was intriguing to read Brueggemann's statement
that "To be taken 'from the dust' means to be
elevated from obscurity to royal office and to return to dust means to be deprived of that office and
returned to obscurity" (emphasis mine). That fits Lehi's speech nicely. Brueggemann's
finding that rising from the dust is also related to kingship, to
enthronement, to covenant keeping, and resurrection also fits
beautifully with Book of Mormon usage.
Brueggemann
explains that being in the covenant means having royal power and
authority, and being out of the covenant means losing such power and
status. Being in the dust, without power or authority, is contrasted to
“sitting with princes” in 1 Samuel 2:6-8. Thus “the phrase ‘from the
dust’ appears here also as a formula relating to enthronement.” Thus
"sitting" in 1 Samuel 2:6-8 is akin to the "sit" in Is. 52:2, where
"arising from the dust" and "sitting" are both references to
enthronement. The 1 Samuel passage ends with a reference to the
creation: “for the pillars of the earth are the Lord’s, and on them he
has set the world.” (p. 3) This reference points to the stability that
comes from sound kingship.
Brueggemann considers
resurrection an important theme related to rising from the dust. He
explains that resurrection in the Old and New Testaments is clearly
linked to "rising from the dust," and says that these related themes run
into each other and reinforce one another (p. 1).
Let's
turn briefly back to Wijngaards' work, the foundation for Brueggemann's
analysis. Wijngaards looked at Hosea 6:2 and its reference to reviving
and rising on the third day. He also examined the related ancient Near
Eastern theme of gods dying and "rising on the third day" (p. 228). He
also notes that revival from sickness was a symbol of resurrection from
God (p. 229),
and that "killing" was used metaphorically to describe dethroning a king and removing people from power (p. 231)
or with replacing one king/lord with another (p. 232), an act that has
covenantal implications. Thus raising someone to life can refer to
entering into a covenant, and death and killing can refer to breaking
the covenant. There are ancient Near Eastern contexts, according to
Wijngaards, where these concepts have rich covenantal implications, and
one of the key words associated with these concepts is yada, to
know, as in a covenant relationship (p. 237). Finally, in this study of
Hosea 6:2, Wijngaards concludes that the verse means this:
Jahweh is said to "revise" and "raise" his people when "on the third day" he will renew his covenant with them.
This renewal is called a "raising from death to life" because it will
restore the reign of blessing and fertility that are consequent on and
inherent in good covenantal relations. (p. 237; emphasis original)
Repentance,
accepting and keeping covenants, enthronement, and resurrection are
tied together, as are the themes of covenant breaking, dying, loss of
power and status, and obscurity--these are part of the complex of
interlocking dust-related themes that we should consider in Lehi's
speech and related passages of the Book of Mormon.
In
Part 2 of Bokovoy's post on the "arise from the dust" theme, he notes that Christ
also cites Isaiah 52:1-2, and that Moroni quotes it to conclude the Book of
Mormon, a fitting closure in light of Lehi's early words. Here is Moroni
10:30-31:
And again I would exhort you that
ye would come unto Christ and lay hold upon every good gift, and touch
not the evil gift, nor the unclean thing.
And awake,
and arise from the dust, O Jerusalem; yea, and put on thy beautiful
garments, O daughter of Zion; and strengthen thy stakes and enlarge thy
borders forever, that thou mayest no more be confounded, that the
covenants of the Eternal Father which he hath made unto thee, O house of
Israel, may be fulfilled.
This is a call to enter into
a covenant relationship with the Redeemer, to acquire every gift that
he offers--gifts that are good (echoing Nephi's name perhaps), a
reminding us of Lehi's plea to his children to "arise from the dust"
and, in parallel to putting on the armor of righteousness that Lehi
spoke off (contrasted with the chains Satan offers), Moroni asks us to
put on our beautiful garments, garments that are linked to (or a symbol
of) the covenants of the Father with us. These garments may well refer
to the robes and garments of the Temple, where we lay hold of every good
gift and learn to cast out Satan and reject his evil gifts. Satan's
gifts, like his chains, are those of darkness, or rather, the
"obscurity" that Lehi begged his wayward sons to flea. Come forth out of
obscurity, shun evil gifts and covenants, arise from the dust, and put
on beautiful garments tied to holy covenants from the Father, and do
this by coming unto Christ.
A Dusty Inclusio Around Lehi's Words?
A Hebraic language pattern also found in the Book of Mormon is
inclusio.
Wikipedia gives a reasonable description:
In
biblical studies, inclusio is a literary device based on a concentric
principle, also known as bracketing or an envelope structure, which
consists of creating a frame by placing similar material at the
beginning and end of a section, although whether this material should
consist of a word or a phrase, or whether greater amounts of text also
qualify, and of what length the frames section should be, are matters of
some debate. Inclusio is found in various sources, both antique and
new.
While this may not be evident to
many of the Bible's modern lay readers, the Hebrew Bible is actually
full of literary devices, some of which, having fallen out of favor over
the years, are lost on most modern readers. Inclusio, of which many
instances can be found in the Bible, is one of these, although many
instances of its usage are not apparent to those reading translations of
the Bible rather than the Hebrew source.
Particularly noteworthy are the many instances of inclusio in the Book of Jeremiah.
This
form of bracketing or framing by placing similar material at the
beginning and end of a passage is related to chiasmus, which sometimes
can seem like "recursive inclusio." As with chiasmus, the presence of
inclusio is easily missed by modern readers reading translations of an
ancient Semitic texts such as the Bible or (in my opinion) the Book of
Mormon, so it is an area of ongoing investigation, with inclusio, like
chiasmus, only having been relatively recently discovered in the Book of
Mormon, well over a century after publication. A recently discovered
example of inclusio in the Book of Mormon, coupled with apparent Hebraic
wordplays, was just published: "
Nephi’s Good Inclusio" by Matthew L. Bowen at
Interpreter: A Journal of Mormon Scripture.
There
appears to be a notable example of inclusio in the way Isaiah is quoted
both before and after Lehi's speech in 2 Nephi 1-3 and the related
passages from Nephi and Jacob in 2 Nephi 4-6 and the preceding chapter, 1
Nephi 22. Back in 1 Nephi 19 quotes material no longer extant in our
Bible from the brass plates, and then says that in order to "more fully
persuade [his people] to believe in the Lord their Redeemer I did read
unto them that which was written by the prophet Isaiah; for I did liken
all scripture unto us" (1 Nephi 19:23). Nephi then begins quoting Isaiah
48 in 1 Nephi 20 and Isaiah 49 in 1 Nephi 21. Interestingly, when he
quotes Isaiah 49:13, he adds two phrases:
Sing, O heavens; and be joyful, O earth; for the feet of those who are in the east shall be established; and break forth into singing, O mountains; for they shall be smitten no more; for the Lord hath comforted his people, and will have mercy upon his afflicted.
One Hebrew root sometimes translated as "establish" is
quwm,
Strong's H6965,
which is the same root used in Isaiah 52:1 for "arise." It occurs as
"establish" 27 times in the OT, but far more frequently as "arise," "rise,"
or related terms. If this was the word Nephi used and presumably was
found in the brass plates, it would fit some aspects of the "rise from
the dust" theme. In view of the dust-related themes that follow and
Abinadi's later discourse on another verse in Isaaih 52 ("how beautiful
upon the mountains are the feet…"), I suggest that this addition may be
meaningful, and that feet + mountains + rejoicing/singing
paint a picture of the redeemed ascending the cosmic mountain, Mount
Zion or the House of the Lord, where they have risen away from and have
been washed from from the mundane dust of the world. There they have
accepted the Lord's covenant , have put on the Lord' beautiful garments,
and in joy received the enthronement or endowment of power and grace
that the Lord offers.
The Isaiah
quotations before Lehi's speech begin with 1 Nephi 20, quoting Isaiah
48:1 "O house of Jacob, who ... are come forth out of the waters of
Judah," to which Joseph Smith added a clarification: "or out of the
waters of baptism." This chunk of Isaiah begins with a reference to a
former washing for those who are now breaking the covenant, and end in 1
Nephi 21 with the closing
verses of Isaiah 49, giving a powerful image related to dust and
enthronement/dethronement while also emphasizing the theme the primary
topic of Lehi, redemption and salvation through the Redeemer:
-
Thus saith the Lord God: Behold, I will lift up mine hand to the
Gentiles, and set up my standard to the people; and they shall bring thy
sons in their arms, and thy daughters shall be carried upon their
shoulders.
- And
kings shall be thy nursing fathers, and their queens thy nursing
mothers; they shall bow down to thee with their face towards the earth,
and lick up the dust of thy feet; and thou shalt know that I am the Lord; for they shall not be ashamed that wait for me.
- For shall the prey be taken from the mighty, or the lawful captives delivered?
-
But thus saith the Lord, even the captives of the mighty shall be taken
away, and the prey of the terrible shall be delivered; for I will
contend with him that contendeth with thee, and I will save thy
children.
- And I
will feed them that oppress thee with their own flesh; they shall be
drunken with their own blood as with sweet wine; and all flesh shall
know that I, the Lord, am thy Savior and thy Redeemer, the Mighty One of
Jacob.
Kings and queens will bow
down and lick up the dust of those who are gathered by the Lord--what an
amazing reversal that again employs the relationship of dust to
enthronement.
When I read these words, I cannot help but think of
another related image: that of the King of Heaven bowing down before his
mortal disciples to wash the dust from their feet shortly before His
crucifixion. Surely He who took on a tabernacle of dust descended below
all things, even below the dust itself as he entered the grave for three
days and three nights. That act must be considered in light of its
profound links to the role of dust (or dust and feet) in the Old
Testament and the Book of Mormon.
That
is the first bracket. The second bracket occurs after Lehi's
Redeemer-centric words in 2 Nephi 1-3, after Nephi's Psalm where he
accepts Lehi's charge to "awake, awake" and "shake" at sin (in light of
Bokovoy's analysis,
showing his worthiness to serve as the legitimate heir of Lehi as ruler
over the Nephite people), and after Jacob's introductory comments in 2
Nephi 6, where Jacob announces that he is now going to read the words of
Isaiah that Nephi has asked him to teach. These are carefully chosen
passages, but with a surprise, for the next chunk of Isaiah is
unnecessarily redundant. Jacob
begins quoting Isaiah not from where Nephi left off, but repeats
verses that Nephi just quoted. A redundant oration is understandable,
but given the limited space on the small plates of Nephi and the
difficulty of engraving, a redundant quotation involves genuine labor
and certainly intent. But why? This new excerpt from Isaiah begins with
Isaiah 49:22 and quotes
the verses about licking of dust from the feet, and the reference to the
Redeemer.
This
redundant section may have seemed like sloppiness to casual readers and
critics, but it is highly thematic and is a clever use of a Hebraic
literary tool, inclusio, to bracket and highlight the dust-related
themes of the chapters in between, and to emphasis the importance of
this dust- and Redeemer-related passage in Isaiah. Jacob then continues
in Isaiah until he gets to Isaiah 52:1-2, the dust-related passage that
underlies Lehi's words--and perhaps more of the Book of Mormon than we
realized before.
One rough way of portraying the structure here is:
A. First Isaiah passage
Beginning: 1 Nephi 20:1 (Is. 48:1): Arising from the waters of Judah (baptism)--as if washed from dust
End:
1 Nephi 21:22-26 (Is. 49:22-26): Kings and queens to lick the dust off
the feet of the covenant people of Israel; all shall know the Savior and
Redeemer.
B. Words of Nephi, Lehi, and Jacob in 1 Nephi
22 and 2 Nephi 1-6, with Lehi's repeated references to Isaiah 52:1-2
and themes of dust, deliverance from captivity, and redemption.
C. Second Isaiah passage
Beginning:
2 Nephi 6:6, quoting Is. 49:22-23 (kings licking dust from the feet) in
2 Nephi 6:6-7, and then continuing with Is. 49:24-26 in 2 Nephi
6:16-18, then Isaiah 50 in 2 Nephi 7 and Isaiah 51 in 2 Nephi 8.
End:
2 Nephi 8:24-25, quoting Is. 52:1-2 ("Awake, awake . . . Shake thyself
from the dust, arise, sit down, loose thyself from the bands of thy
necks, O captive daughter of Zion."
It's more than
"just" inclusio. You could say this is a textual example of going "from
dust to dust." Nephi appears to be using the structure of his words,
including the choice of Isaiah passages to cite, to frame and amplify a
core theme for the Book of Mormon.
With that background, let's dust off the chiasmus in Alma 36.
Dusting Off a Loose Portion of Alma 36
The
chiastic nature of Alma 36 has been a popular topic for LDS apologists,
and one that the critics have learned to criticize. It is too fuzzy,
too loose, they argue, and with some fair points. The beginning and end
of the chiasmus are strong and compact, and the center point, where Alma
turns to Christ, is also distinct and relatively compact. The portions
in the middle, though, are of a different nature, with some steps in the
chiasmus spread out as a general concept covering multiple verses where
critics can accuse us of looking for patterns that aren't there. There is a reasonable response to this objection: when
relating history, there are things that need to be said that won't fit
nicely and compactly in a chiasmus. But at the pivot point, generally
the most important part of the chiasmus, and at the end points, which
are also particularly important, the chiasmus is clear and strong in
Alma 36. The middle ground is still chiastic, though necessarily more
diffuse.
Here is a typical framing of Alma 46, taken from John Welch, "
A Masterpiece: Alma 36," in
Rediscovering the Book of Mormon, ed. J.L. Sorenson and M.J. Thorne (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1991) showing his proposed structure of the verses:
(a) My son, give ear to my WORDS (1)
(b) KEEP THE COMMANDMENTS of God and ye shall PROSPER IN THE LAND (2)
(c) DO AS I HAVE DONE (2)
(d) in REMEMBERING THE CAPTIVITY of our fathers (2);
(e) for they were in BONDAGE (2)
(f) he surely did DELIVER them (2)
(g) TRUST in God (3)
(h) supported in their TRIALS, and TROUBLES, and AFFLICTIONS (3)
(i) shall be lifted up at the LAST DAY (3)
(j) I KNOW this not of myself but of GOD (4)
(k) BORN OF GOD (5)
(l) I sought to destroy the church of God (6-9)
(m) MY LIMBS were paralyzed (10)
(n) Fear of being in the PRESENCE OF GOD (14-15)
(o) PAINS of a damned soul (16)
(p) HARROWED UP BY THE MEMORY OF SINS (17)
(q) I remembered JESUS CHRIST, SON OF GOD (17)
(q') I cried, JESUS, SON OF GOD (18)
(p') HARROWED UP BY THE MEMORY OF SINS no more (19)
(o') Joy as exceeding as was the PAIN (20)
(n') Long to be in the PRESENCE OF GOD (22)
(m') My LIMBS received their strength again (23)
(l') I labored to bring souls to repentance (24)
(k') BORN OF GOD (26)
(j') Therefore MY KNOWLEDGE IS OF GOD (26)
(h') Supported under TRIALS, TROUBLES, and AFFLICTIONS (27)
(g') TRUST in him (27)
(f') He will deliver me (27)
(i') and RAISE ME UP AT THE LAST DAY (28)
(e') As God brought our fathers out of BONDAGE and captivity (28-29)
(d') Retain in REMEMBRANCE THEIR CAPTIVITY (28-29)
(c') KNOW AS I DO KNOW (30)
(b') KEEP THE COMMANDMENTS and ye shall PROSPER IN THE LAND (30)
(a') This is according to his WORD (30).
Some loose spots include item i' in verse 28
apparently showing up a verse
late (I'm not sure why--a slip or a necessity?) and big gaps or
significant looseness around item l (the concept of destroying the
church of God, verses 6-9), item m (MY LIMBS paralyzed in verse 10) and
item n (fear of being in the PRESENCE OF GOD. verses 14-15).
Shortly
after reading Brueggemann, I reread Alma 36 to respond to a critic at
Mormanity challenging the validity of Alma 36 as a significant
achievement. As I looked at the weakest spots, I noticed some
dust-related terms that caught my interest:
7. earth did tremble (shake) beneath our feet … fell to the earth … fear of the Lord
8. …the voice said unto me, Arise. And I arose and stood up
9. …destroyed … seek no more to destroy the church of God
10. … I fell to the earth … three days and three nights …
11. …destroyed … destroy no more … fear … destroyed … fell to the earth and did hear no more
The
earth trembles, the dust of the ground is shaking under their feet, and
he falls down, toward the dust. A possible relationship with dust
themes?
Alma has broken the covenant and
is at risk of losing his status and even life. Surprised by an angel,
amazed at God's power and reality, he falls to the earth, to the dust.
As Lehi commanded his sons, the angel commands Alma to "Arise."
Literally, he is to arise from the ground, from the dust. He stands, but
cannot remain standing in light of his sinful state. He faces
destruction for the work of destruction he has done. The flame of guilt
ignited, he falls again to the earth, to the dust, and is as if dead, as
if in the grave for three days and three nights. And again we are told
that faced with destruction, in fear and amazement, he fell to the earth
and could hear no more.
He falls to the dust and then falls again.
On
the other side of the pivot point, where item m' refers to limbs
receiving strength in verse 23, there may be even more parallels in this
chiasmus:
22. Yea, methought I saw, even as our father Lehi saw, God sitting upon his throne, surrounded with numberless concourses of angels, in the attitude of singing and praising their God; yea, and my soul did long to be there.
23. But behold, my limbs did receive their strength again, and I stood upon my feet, and did manifest unto the people that I had been born of God.
24. Yea, and from that time even until now, I have labored without ceasing,
that I might bring souls unto repentance; that I might bring them to
taste of the exceeding joy of which I did taste; that they might also be born of God, and be filled with the Holy Ghost.
25. Yea, and now behold, O my son, the Lord doth give me exceedingly great joy in the fruit of my labors;
26. For because of the word which he has imparted unto me, behold, many
have been born of God, and have tasted as I have tasted, and have seen
eye to eye as I have seen; therefore they do know of these things of
which I have spoken, as I do know; and the knowledge which I have is of
God.
In light of Brueggemann's work,
falling to the earth in Alma 36 may do much more than just convey
Alma's great fear, but may serve as an equivalent to returning to the
dust, invoking these symbols:
- physical death
- spiritual death (falling away from God)
- rebellion, sin, breaking the covenant
- losing power, authority, life
- destruction
The
association of death with falling to the earth is reinforced with many
elements, including references to destruction, the deathlike state of
his body, suffering the pains of hell, and Alma's being in this state
"for three days and three nights" (v. 10), an apparent reference to the
prophesied time that Christ would spend in the grave (see Nephi's
prophecy in 2 Nephi 25:13, and the related prophecy of Zenos on the
brass plates, mentioned in 1 Nephi 19:10), which is also consistent with
the theme of rising on the third day discussed by J. Wijngaards in the
above-mentioned work, "
Death and Resurrection in Covenantal Context (Hos. VI 2)."
The
possibility that Alma's fall to the earth is meant to be associated
with the dust-related themes introduced by Lehi is reinforced by the
words, or rather word, of the angel to fallen Alma: "Arise" (v. 8). This
word is repeated as Alma states that "I arose and stood up,"
unnecessarily redundant unless Alma were reinforcing the word "arise"
(possibly from
quwm in Hebrew). Alma even explicitly mentions Lehi in Alma 36:22.
In
considering the terms that could stand in contrast to such a fall to
the dust of the earth, what could be more appropriate in this context
than being "born again" with its implications of spiritual renewal,
entering into the covenant, and receiving life, power and grace from
God? Just as our "loose" upper midsection of the chiasmus mentions
Alma's fall to the earth three times, the related section in the lower
midsection also mentions being born again three times.
In
light of the dust/death/fall themes in the upper midsection and the
contrasting concepts of being born again and entering into the covenant
with God in the lower midsection, perhaps the sparse, amorphous
mid-sections of the chiasm's wings are actually loaded with more than
previously realized when Brueggemann's insights are added.
The
loose section, comprising verses 5 to 15 on the upper side and verses
23 to 26 on the lower, spanning elements k, l, m, and n in Welch's
mapping of the chiasmus, actually has more than just 4 little phrases in
common. There are multiple concepts with multiple dimensions
interspersed in a complex passage. Rather than neatly parse it as a
simple linear chiasmus, look at the interwoven block of themes.
The first section has these major themes:
- Alma
falls to the earth. After being told to "arise," he arose and stood up
but soon falls again. He is literally "fallen again" in the presence of
an angel, fallen from God. His falling to the earth is mentioned three
times (vv. 7, 10, 11).
- Alma is like one who is dead.
He can't move his limbs (v. 10), his can't open his mouth (v. 10), and
he can't hear (v. 11). Three times we learn that his body isn't working:
limbs, mouth, and ears are not functioning.
- He is not only as if dead, but as if in hell, experiencing the pains of a damned soul (vv. 12-13). Body and soul are affected.
- Alma
was seeking to destroy the Church of God. This is mentioned 3 times
(vv. 6, 9, 11). Speaking of destruction, he is warned that he will be
destroyed if he keeps seeking to destroy the Church of God.
- He
has not kept God's commandments, meaning that he has departed/fallen
from the covenant (v. 13). Worse yet, he has led others away from God,
causing them also to die, or he "had murdered many of his children" (v.
14), causing inexpressible horror at the thought of coming into God's
presence.
- He yearns to "become extinct [dead] both soul and body" (v. 15)..
- These
events are precipitated by the appearance of an angel (v. 6), who
speaks to the sons of Mosiah with the voice of thunder (v. 7).
Now
compare that section from verses 6-14 with the related loose section on
the other side of the pivot point, verses 23 to 26, which has these
major themes:
- Alma returns to life
(physically) and is born again (spiritually), in contrast to being
"extinct both soul and body" and in contrast to his deathlike state
before.
- Being "born of God" is mentioned three times (vv. 23, 24, 26) in this section.
- He
regains the use of his limbs (v. 23) including his feet. His mouth
functions for he "manifests" his change to the people (v. 23) and helps
others to taste as he tastes (v. 24). His eyes function for he helps
others to "see as I have seen" (v. 26). This is in contrast to the three
ways his body wasn't working properly before.
- Now he can arise without falling: he stands upon his feet (v. 23) and is able to "labor without ceasing" (v. 24).
- His
labor now is not destroying the church of God, but bringing others to
repentance, that they might also be born of God and be filled with the
Holy Ghost (v. 24). Thus, instead of "murdering" others (recall Wijngaards' point about killing and dethronement), he is giving
them newness of life in the covenant. Now "many have been born of God" because of his
work (v, 26). In bringing souls to repentance, he is implicitly warning
them of the destruction sin brings, as the angel warned him.
- In
helping others enter into the covenant with God, he now has
"exceedingly great joy in the fruit of my labors" (v. 25) instead of
fear and horror.
- The role of the angel in speaking to
Alma before is parallel to the function of the Holy Ghost and the Lord
who fill Alma with great joy and impart God's word to him (vv. 25-26).
Alma's
fall to the dust, involving the spiritual death of his soul and the
apparent physical death of his body are described in multiple,
intertwined ways in the upper mid-section, and they are reflected in the
description of Alma's new "born again" state in the lower section. From
death to life, from sin to repentance, from destruction of the
Church to building it, from fear and pain to joy, from murdering others
to giving them life, all made possible by the divine grace initiated by
an angel, amplified by the Holy Ghost, that this lost and fallen soul
might rise from the dust literally and figuratively to be born of God.
With
the perspective that comes from understanding the Book of Mormon's use
of dust-related themes as introduced by Lehi and used multiple times
right up to the closing page of the Book of Mormon, we find that a large
gap in the otherwise brilliant chiasmus of Alma 36 becomes much more
meaningful. A loose, sparse section in the mid upper-section previously
mapped with only a few parallel words among many verses actually becomes
a relatively tight cluster of intertwined themes, with almost every
major concept being reflected on in the corresponding section below the
pivot point.
As for the "chains of darkness" in the
Book of Moses that began this study and took me to the theme of rising
from the dust, yes, chains
are also mentioned in Alma 36, but "chains of death." In fact, they are
mentioned
almost at the very pivot point of the chiasmus where Alma turns to
Christ, and then in contrast to the chains of death, Alma beholds light
and experiences joy:
17. And
it came to pass that as I was thus racked with torment, while I was
harrowed up by the memory of my many sins, behold, I remembered also to
have heard my father prophesy unto the people concerning the coming of
one Jesus Christ, a Son of God, to atone for the sins of the world.
18.
Now, as my mind caught hold upon this thought, I cried within my heart:
O Jesus, thou Son of God, have mercy on me, who am in the gall of
bitterness, and am encircled about by the everlasting chains of death.
19.
And now, behold, when I thought this, I could remember my pains no
more; yea, I was harrowed up by the memory of my sins no more.
20. And oh, what joy, and what marvelous light I did behold; yea, my soul was filled with joy as exceeding as was my pain!
The
encirclement of chains of death in Alma's dust-like state of spiritual
death is later contrasted with another form of encirclement:
22. Yea, methought I saw, even as our father Lehi saw, God sitting upon
his throne, surrounded with numberless concourses of angels, in the
attitude of singing and praising their God; yea, and my soul did long to
be there.
In addition the Welch's mapping that
leaves some gaps where the chiasmic content seems sparse, the somewhat
densely packed content brought out by exploration of the Book of
Mormon's motif of rising from the dust with related thematic elements
(keeping covenants, receiving glory and power, being revived or
resurrected, or, as Alma puts it, born again) gives us more noteworthy
parallels to consider. This material can be remapped in multiple ways,
though I prefer to leave it as a cluster of
dust/death related themes above the pivot, and life/born again themes
below.
One approach to mapping it is to consider
different strands of parallel structures almost as if they are themes
in a fugue, weaving in and out of the main structure and not necessarily
aligned with the primary pivot point. Thus, superimposed on the
overarching structure Welch proposed, we may also add strands such as:
Death and Destruction Strand
Three days and three nights - like dead (v.10)
loss of body functions (can't speak, limbs don't move, can't hear) (vs. 10-11)
destroy, destroy (v. 11)
fear (v. 11)
amazement (v. 11)
destroyed (v. 11)
torment for sins (v. 12)
remembered all my sins (v. 13)
murdered/destroyed others (v. 14)
inexpressible horror (fear) (v. 14)
extinction of body and soul (v. 15)
three days and three nights - like dead (v. 16)
I think three days and three nights as a symbol of death and revival needs to be considered here as part of Alma's structure. It's a beautiful fit for the dust-related themes of the Bible and possibly the brass plates.
Encircled/Surrounded Redemption Strand
A plea to Jesus Christ (v. 17)
encircled by the chains of death (v. 18)
liberated, sees light (v. 19)
joy as exceeding as my pain (v. 19)
joy as exquisite as my pain (v. 20)
saw God (v. 21)
surrounded by angels (v. 22)
Singing and praising God (v. 22)
Once again, when the chains come off, there isn't just light and joy, there is singing. I like that!
Divine Voice Strand
God, by the mouth of a holy angel, made things known unto me (v.5)
my unworthiness (v. 5)
seeking to destroy the church of God (v. 6)
God sent his holy angel to stop us by the way (v. 6)
The angel spake unto us, as with the voice of thunder (v. 7)
the whole earth did tremble beneath our feet; (v. 7)
we all fell to the earth in fear (v. 7)
The angel's voice said unto me: (v. 8)
Arise (v. 8)
I did arise, and stood up (v. 8)
I beheld the angel, and he spoke: (vs. 8-9)
destroyed, destroy (v. 9)
I fell to the earth as if dead (v. 10)
The angel spake more things unto me, but I did not hear (v. 22)
For the "Divine Voice" strand, contrasts occur in the lower half of the overall chiasmus, with reference to the word of God that been has imparted to Alma (vs. 26), the words he now imparts to others to bring them to God (vv. 23-26), and, of course, the voice of angels who are singing and praising God (v. 22) as well as his own praise of God (v. 28).
Rising Strand (emphasis on "rising from the dust/ returning to the dust" themes)
Lifted up at the last day / delivered from trial, troubles, afflictions (v.3)
born of God (v. 5)
Fell to the earth / arise, arose / fell to the earth (vv. 7-10)
three days and three nights, limbs cease working, (v. 10)
racked with eternal torment (v. 12)
presence of God: inexpressible horror (v. 15)
yearns to be extinct, to not stand (v. 15)
in presence of God (v. 15)
three days and three nights: death (v. 16)
pains of a damned soul, torment (vv. 16-17)
Jesus Christ atones for sins of the world (v. 17)
(to break) the chains of death (v. 18)
pains removed (v. 19)
sees God sitting on his throne, singing, praising (v. 22)
yearns to be there (v. 22)
limbs receive their strength (v. 23)
stands upon his feet (v. 23)
born of God (v. 23)
Raised up at the last day / supported in trials, troubles, and afflictions (vv. 27-28)
The "Rising" strand looks at the chains as a potentially significant term linked to the motif of rising from the dust, and naturally also includes the "lifted up" and "raised up" passages at the ends.
Like the main chiasmus, the "rising strand" also works better if either of phrases "raised up" or "lifted up" (at the last day) are moved slightly, for then two more elements fit a cleaner chiasmic structure ("trials, troubles, and afflictions," and also being "delivered"). Welch's outline above labels the latter instance, element i', as out of place, which is a logical suggestion for the overall structure, but the "Rising" strand works better if the first instance, "lifted up" in verse 3 is just moved up a few words in the text, so that elements i and h in the first part of the chiasmus are switched. It works better because it gives more emphasis to the theme of rising, putting it at the end points of the strand and closer to the end points of the main chiasmus.
These strands are crude initial efforts and don't necessarily mean anything.
These strands may not be intentional and could be wishful thinking on my
part (finding
false positives, etc.), but in any case I find the "rising from the dust" theme of the
Book of Mormon to be a potentially important lens to understand some of
its passages. It seems that Nephi was keenly aware of those themes in
the way he framed Lehi's speech in an inclusio with redundancy from
Isaiah followed by a nice build to the critical Isaiah 52:1-2. Alma's
contrast between falling to the earth, being like dead, and then being
born again and freed from the chains of death also suggests awareness
and intelligent use of those concepts. However you map it or unpack it,
there is a lot going on in Alma 36 and I think a lot more going on in
the Book of Mormon than we may have realized. What a remarkable voice
from the dust!